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CENTER OF TERRITORIAL DOMAINS AND THE NETWORK
OF THE INCA ROAD - QHAPAQ ÑAN, IN THE PROVINCE OF
TUMBES - PERU
Ruben Martinez Cabrera
National University Federico Villarreal UNFV- INERN, (Peru).
E-mail: rmartinezc@unfv.edu.pe ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4561-8627
Doris Esenarro
EUPG Escuela Universitaria de Posgrado - National University Federico Villarreal, (Peru).
E-mail: desenarro@unfv.edu.pe ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7186-9614
Pedro Amaya
National University Federico Villarreal UNFV- INERN, (Peru).
E-mail: pamaya@unfv.edu.pe ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9123-0124
Violeta Vega Ventosilla
National University Federico Villarreal UNFV- INERN, (Peru).
E-mail: vvega@unfv.edu.pe ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7763-6993
Recepción: 10/07/2021 Aceptación: 22/10/2021 Publicación: 14/12/2021
Citación sugerida:
Cabrera R. M., Esenarro, D., Amaya, P., y Ventosilla, V. V. (2021). Center of territorial domains and the network of
the inca road - Qhapaq Ñan, in the province of Tumbes - Peru. 3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicadas a la pyme,
10(4), 51-87. https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno/2021.v10n4e40.51-87
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ABSTRACT
The present research aims to mathematically determine an archaeological site through spatial range-size
analysis of limits and cultural boundaries. The methodology used collects information from archaeological
sites in the province of Tumbes, identies the urban centers of more signicant extension, are spatially
located using ArcGis software with ArcMap tool; with the spatial model, X-Tent also determined the
territorial domains of attachment, in the analysis of the road network, generates the longitudinal prole
and areas of inuence through Thiessen polygons with which the domain areas are compared. With the
values obtained, the territorial proportion has a constant K = 1/555; with these values, the domains of
the archaeological sites of "Cabeza de Vaca" with an extension of 142,671.15 has an "El Guinea" with an
area of 17,836.73 has been determined, located in the province of Tumbes district of Corrales and San
Jacinto, separated by a distance of 60 km, linear. The boundaries intersect territorially at the Huásimo
archaeological site. It is concluded that the domain "Cabeza de Vaca" has an occupation of 80.62% and
"El Guineal" of 10.08% of the province of Tumbes; it was determined that in the intersection of both
is located an archaeological site that was used as Tambo by the Incas, currently called Huásimo at an
altitude of 787 meters above sea level.
KEYWORDS
Domains, Networks, Nodes, X-Tent, Thiessen Polygons.
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1. INTRODUCTION
The great Inca empire was interconnected by a network of roads called "Quapaq Ñan," this network
is distributed throughout Peru, including neighboring countries, the major network of the Inca road
that goes from Cuzco - Cajamarca - Quito, has a detour in Piura (Poechos) to the west to intercept the
Qda. Cuzco, continuing along this road you reach the archaeological site known as Guineal, continues
through the dry forests of the protected natural area Cerros de Amotape, arriving at Rica Playa (CCPP),
the road continued westward to reach the archaeological site of Cabeza de Vaca (Province) (Esenarro et
al., 2021).
During Inca times, the Inca provinces were a critical territorial unit of imperial organization and
administration (Vitry, 2017) These provinces were not mapped or physically restricted due to border
limitations, and there is no clear information in ethnohistoric sources about their administrative and
economic role. Regarding the Inca provinces, there is little discussion of their participation in the
Tawantinsuyo and rarely an archaeological analysis of the provincial organization (Chacaltana et al.,
2017).
Tumbes was peacefully annexed to the great Tahuantinsuyo Empire during the rule of the Inca Tupac
Yupanqui, who, after subjugating Quito, decided to incorporate the "valleys of the plains" (Tumbes).
The Incas introduced the customs of the Inca Empire, teaching to worship the Sun (Inti) and the Moon
(Killa), so it was ordered to build a temple for the worship of the Sun, a house for the chosen virgins, a
fortress where they were located as a garrison of war to people loyal to the Inka, a residence for the Inka
"Huayna Capac" during his stay in the region (Hernandez, 2012). Likewise, many warehouses were built
with supplies for the people who resided there or the warriors who passed through. All this represented
the central city of Tumbes - Inka, which today is known as the monumental archaeological complex
Cabeza de Vaca.
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Commercially Tumbes - Inka, and its city Cabeza de Vaca-, was a port of exchange, where it entered
by sea from the north; the Spondylus heading south, by land by means of llama herds by "The way of
the plains or Inca Trail." For this, it is presented as evidence over the entire scope of the project between
Cabeza de Vaca and Rica Playa that, during the late horizon, "the Spondylus entered in rafts through
ancient Tumbes, were transported by land and were carved in the tambos, also considering the ndings
of these shells along the coastal road between Poechos and Serran that conrm this transport" (Marcone,
2020).
The Guineal Center is located 8 km southwest of the hamlet of Capitan Hoyle and 64 km from Tumbes,
in the lower middle course of the Quebrada Cusco, the current boundary between the Departments of
Tumbes and Piura. It is located at 250 masl, UTM coordinates 9 543 363 N and 551 195 E.
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The Inca Road
Approximately ve hundred years ago, when Europe was on its way to the American coasts, a vigorous
process of development and integration was taking place in large part of the territory now occupied by
the countries of the Andean region, which was the product of one of the greatest civilizations in the
world, the Incas (Ministerio de la Cultura, 2013).
The Inca empire was the most crucial state in American history, and its creation would have been
impossible without the road system that served transportation, communications, and administration.
Elevated roads in the Andean region take on particular importance when compared to those of other
societies. For this reason, early Europeans repeatedly praised Inca roads and found them superior to
those of 16th century Europe (Sternfeld, 2007).
Many of the Inca roads are still intact, and some are in excellent condition. Using this road system,
diverse activities were developed, which are indispensable in the development and functioning of a state.
It was as if a single, enormous entity replaced our air, rail, and land networks, our postal and telephone
system, as well as part of the national administrative system (Vilchez, 2013).
The Inca roads represented the power of a state around not only its space articulated by 23,000 km of
roads but also the link between the natural and the supernatural, within a cultural universe that stretched
from the north of Argentina and Chile to the plains of Venezuela.
For the Incas, the Capac Ñan or Inca Ñan (Great Road or Inca Trail) was a complex administrative,
transportation, and communications system and a means of delimiting the four primary divisions of
the Empire. The main road led from the capital, Cusco, to each of the four suyos into which the Inca
Empire was divided (Antisuyo, Contisuyo, Chinchaisuyo, and Collasuyo). The Inca roads also described
the geography of the state and the control it exercised over the peoples that formed it (Moralejo, 2012).
For the conquered peoples throughout the empire, the roads constituted an omnipresent symbol of the
power and authority of the Inca state. There must probably have been very few individuals subject to
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the empire who had not at some time seen an Inca Trail. The vassal populations also understood that the
roads were built and maintained with their labor; as part of their obligations to the dominant state, the
Inca Empire had to be seen as a symbol of the power and authority of the Inca state.
The Inca road system had two major longitudinal roads, one from the coast, which linked the current
Chilean territory with Tumbes; the other, the backbone of the kingdom, linked Cusco with Quito,
crossing the entire highlands; in many sections, it was paved and equipped with drains, bridges, retaining
and defense walls, embankments and steps. The Great Road or Capac Ñan of the Sierra was up to 16
m wide in some places. Some passes had a double roadway, one paved and wide and the other narrow
and solid; through one passed the Inca and his court and through the other the supplies and helpers. On
the southern coast of Peru, in the Waca ravine, there is a transversal road that carried fresh sh from the
sea to the imperial capital of Cusco.
The Chinchaisuyo road was the most important of all. Its construction under the government of Tupac
Yupanqui was the most signicant state work of the imperial phase of the Quechua Cusco. When the
territory of the Cañaris and the humid mountain ranges of the north were incorporated, the Incas weaved
their network of roads according to the social system, and thanks to this way of organizing themselves,
they developed an admirable road technology, which knew how to take advantage of previous traces and
left, paradoxically, a precious inheritance to their European conquerors (Matos, 2017).
At its northern end, from Cajamarca, the Capac Ñan took the Ecuadorian province of Loja to
Tomebamba (now Cuenca). In Loja, the road passed through the Mariviña and Bola tambo. In Cuenca,
a place of admirable roads, the great tambos were Tambo Blanco, Tomebamba itself, Paredones and
Ingapirca, in the area called Hatun Cañar.
The transformation of the social organization accompanied the Inca entrance to the current Ecuadorian
territory; the organization of work was made according to the Inca rotation systems to supply goods and
services to the state structures (especially roads and tambos) (Pino, 2016). That is why this road appeared
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due to the last conquests, in the highest phase of Inca development, and its construction is of excellent
quality.
In Inca times, the journeys were measured so that at the end of a trip (more or less every 30 km), there
was a large inn or Tambo. The Tambos Reales were equipped with authentic palaces with deposits for
food, called colcas, meeting spaces and rooms for permanent service personnel. In addition, there were
also post-like way points, the chasquiwasis, used by travelers and couriers (chasquis) (Smith, 2017).
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. THE INCA DOMAIN
His political-social organization responds to the needs of a population, considering the potentials that the
soil, air, and water give us; in this sense, urban growth was xed since Inca times in good soil (agricultural)
and water sources. In addition to the connectivity provided by a good road, the analysis of the streets
should be carried out with the integration of multiple layers of information that include the review of
data from archaeology, history, toponymy, ethnography (oral tradition), photographic and cartographic
documentation, whether historical or recent, as well as other sources related to these that allow us to
recognize the characteristics of the object of study: in our case, the Inca road network (Verhagen, 2018).
In the archaeological sites of the province of Tumbes, 99 vestiges were identied among mounds,
enclosures, headwalls, tambos, canals, roads, among others, of which 25 are recognized as sites that
housed population (Diaz, 2013).
A historical identication of these sites is made to determine the centers that had a more signicant
extension or larger structures over the other archaeological sites; in this sense, the El Guineal Center is
identied, which has an attachment of 0.45 has and Cabeza de Vaca with 2.5 has; the constant (k) is
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calculated, placing the smaller area over the larger one, obtaining the value of k = 1/x where x is the
value of small size over a large area.
I = f ( C ) = k * d X-Tent Model
I = Measure of Potential Political Inuence of the Population Center
f(C) = Domain Center (size of infrastructure)
k = Constant (proportional size of the comparison of the structures of the centers)
d = Distance from the radius
Obtained the values we accept that our constant is K = 1/5.55 this value we multiply it by 100 getting a
deal of 100% for Guinea and 555.55% for Cabeza de Vaca, with these values the domains are determined
through the Arc Gis program.
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Figure 3. The X-Tent model.
Source: own elaboration.
Figure 3 presents the domain inuence between the centers named C1, C2, C5, with a distance
separating them (d); the size of each center is represented by a vertical line (I), The domain radius of
each is given by the intersection of the continuous oblique line, which corresponds according to the size
and growth constant. The dashed lines indicate the variation eect. In the gure, it is seen that C2 and
C3 is inuenced by C1, while part of C4 is out of reach and C5 totally out of the inuence of C1.
2.2. CURRENT AND INCA ROAD NETWORK
The road network analysis is focused on identifying the connection of these with the various current
and Inca population centers. To do this, using the geographic information system tool, we will spatially
identify the current roads and the position of the population centers from which we will obtain the areas
of inuence through Thiessen's polygons (Martinez, 2010).
To obtain the measures of centrality, I will base myself on the current map of the Inca Road Network
of the study area (Figure 2-3), dividing this network into sections dened by nodes and the connections
between them; each identied Inca center corresponds to a node (point or vertex). Each unit is dened
by two nodes located at the ends and the Inca Trail that links them.
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The Thiessen polygons (interpolation method, based on the Euclidean distance) are constructed from
nodes (population centers) and networks (straight lines that join the nodes), with the nodes unions, are
generated forming triangles and nding the point of the circumcenter from this point the perpendicular
bisectors are traced to each segment, the intersections of these perpendicular bisectors determine a
series of polygons of two-dimensional form (Peña et al., 2019).
Figure 4. Inca roads in the highlands of Piura and associated sites.
Source: own elaboration.
The Inca road was understood as a road network. This network served as the articulator of a hierarchical
administrative system of sites, including administrative centers and tambos. At the end of the day, these
were the imperial structures that allowed an adequate administration of the imperial area. The Inca
Trail and Inca archaeology in general, allowing not only to change the scale of analysis and link the past
with the present, but also to give meaning to heritage management by linking the trail with its territory
and its people. Figure 4 shows the Inca road network that reached Tumbes (Bernabe, 2017).
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Figure 5. The Red Inca of Quapaq Ñan.
Source: own elaboration.
The great Inca Trail was an extraordinary achievement in design and engineering, unifying the Empire
both physically and conceptually. Four main roads led from Cusco, the capital, to the four parts of the
kingdom, while two longitudinal roads on a north-south axis formed the backbone of the entire territory.
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Figure 6. Typology of Inca roads and associated centers in southern Ecuador and northern Peru, considering the environmental
characteristics.
Source: own elaboration.
Figure 6 shows the red line, a longitudinal road (Qhapaq Ñan) that associates the leading and most
signicant urban centers. In contrast, the Inca road of study in this research is a transverse road (orange
color) but transcendental for the Inca commercial period and the area's locals (Bar, 2017).
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3. RESULTS
3.1. CENTER OF DOMINION
According to X-ten, the urban centers gave the Inca Domain Centers respect to their size, which considers
that the dominance of the provincial centers is related to their size or the distance between these centers.
3.2. CABEZA DE VACA CENTER
Location, It is located on the left bank of the Tumbes River, Lower Valley. In the current hamlet of
Cabeza de Vaca, district of Corrales, province, and department of Tumbes. It rises above 23 meters
above sea level. With UTM Coordinates of 9 602 000 N and 557 300 E., It is bordered on the north by
the Pan-American Highway, on the east by the town of Corrales, on the west by La Garita hill, and the
south by Loma del Viento.
It is accessed from Tumbes, 5 km from the Pan-American Highway north to the Corrales intersection.
Take the Via de Evitamiento for 500 meters to the Cabeza de Vaca intersection and continue along a
dirt road to the Cabeza de Vaca Sur hamlet. It is located at the junction of the hilly area with the plain;
the site is bisected by the current irrigation canal and the Pan-American Highway North.
Type of Site: It is a Monumental Complex (Ceremonial Administrative Center), which currently occupies
a space of approximately 100 hectares and consists of a series of stone and adobe structures, from which
sectors are dened with functional and hierarchical dierences (Administrative - religious - productive),
such as:
The Huaca del Sol: It is the monumental structure of greater volumetric not only within the Archaeological
Complex of Cabeza de Vaca but in the Valley of Tumbes; it is a truncated pyramid of adobe, erected
in staggered levels, it is of rectangular plant oriented from southwest to northwest, it measures 250
meters long, 100 meters wide and 15 meters high. However, it appears to be a solid body inside. There
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are enclosures, passageways, patios, with walls 3 meters high, currently buried, whose heads are barely
drawn on the ground as slight longitudinal elevations (González, 2017).
Malacological Workshop: Located in one of the hills located to the east of the Huaca del Sol. On the
surface, there are a large number of malacological remains such as bivalves (Spondylus, Anadara, Ostrea)
and shells (Strombus, Conus, Melongena) in dierent stages of work: complete, cut, totally or partially
polished fragments; likewise, nodules, silhouettes of gures (preforms) and beautiful tiny gurines with
anthropoid, Phyto and zoo morph representations have been recovered from this workshop; as well as
lithic instruments that served to polish, cut, scrape and drill the raw material. Private collectors in the
Department of Tumbes have valuable samples obtained in this workshop.
Huacas Menores: A group of mounds, whose oors do not exceed 40 x 30 meters and their height ranges
between 3.8 and 1.5 meters, erected on the plain that extends to the north of the Huaca del Sol. These
structures have been built with adobe and stone foundations, and their original size and shape have been
destroyed by farmers using heavy machinery (Vilchez, 2015).
Irrigation Canal: It crossed the archaeological zone from east to west. Its line has disappeared, although
versions indicate that the modern canal that runs parallel to the west side of the Huaca del Sol is the
same line of the pre-Hispanic channel.
Associated Material and Cultural Filiation: Surface concentrations of cultural material are observed,
both ceramic fragments of local style, tallán, Chimú, and Inca; malacological remains, both carving
debris and remains of food, in addition to bone remains and stone tools (Albeck, 2016).
State of Conservation: The site is in a deplorable state of conservation. Currently, the Monumental
Archaeological Zone of Cabeza de Vaca is subject to systematic destruction, accelerated during the last
few years due to natural factors but, above all, to human action. Population growth and the expansion
of the agricultural frontier are currently the signicant impacts, as the need to install services for the
population settled on the ruins (water and sewage networks, electrication, access roads, street paving,
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land clearing, etc.) have a signicant impact on the destruction of archaeological contexts and the
deterioration of the movable and immovable property.
In recent months, the population, instigated by some politically motivated individuals, has been
demanding the execution of public works, threatening the Regional Cultural Directorate of Tumbes if
they are not granted the permits they are requesting (Alessandri, 2016).
Figure 7. Areas of the Cabeza de Vaca Center domain and the current locations of the districts of the Province of Tumbes.
Source: own elaboration.
Figure 7 shows that the districts of Corrales, La Cruz, San Juan de la Virgen, and Tumbes were dominated,
while the communities of Pampas de Hospital (80.5%) and San Jacinto (65.7%) were overwhelmed by
the Cabeza de Vaca Center.
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3.3. GUINEAL CENTER
Politically it belongs to the Province of Tumbes, District of San Jacinto in the Department of Tumbes,
and the Province of Sullana, District of Lancones, in the Department of Piura. It is located 8 km
southwest of the town of Capitan Hoyle and 64 km from Tumbes, in the lower middle course of the
Quebrada Cusco, the current boundary between the Departments of Tumbes and Piura. It is located at
250 masl, in UTM coordinates 9 543 363 N and 551 195 E.
It is accessed from the city of Tumbes by following the Pan-American Highway North for 35 minutes
to Bocapán. At this point, take the paved road to Casitas for 1 hour until the turno to Huásimo. After
3 hours, you arrive at the town of Capitán Hoyle, formerly Cazaderos, where you begin a 2-hour hike
along the Cusco Creek upstream to the Guineal sector (Bernal, 2020).
In this section, the Cusco Creek has a regular surface, wide, sandy-stony bed. In contrast, the Guineal or
El Mango Creek, which ows into the left bank, has an irregular surface, winding course, and a narrow,
rocky bed with permanent water even in years of extreme drought. On the right bank, the surrounding
hills are of medium elevation (sector 1); the lower part is an alluvial terrace with at relief (sector 2),
while the opposite side is higher with a moderate slope at the bottom (sectors 3 and 4). The vegetative
cover consists of carob, pego pego, black huayacán, lion's ear, barbasco, charán, pasallo, polo polo,
angolo, huápala, negrito, huarapo, sapote, hualtaco, palo santo, and shrubs such as aserrilla, frejolillo,
and tongo (Diaz, 2013).
Type of Site: It is an archaeological complex composed of several stone structures, occupying
approximately 14 hectares, on both banks of the Quebrada Cusco. To facilitate the study and description
of the site, the site has been divided into four sectors. Each occupies a dened topographic location and
shows peculiar characteristics in terms of the structures' density, shapes, and sizes.
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Table 1. Divided into four sectors.
Sector 1
On the top of a hill, on the right side of the Quebrada Cuzco, there is a small structure of 5 x 4
meters, built with two staggered levels of one meter high, from where the environment is visually
dominated, on both sides of the slope there are retaining walls of rustic manufacture.
Sector 2
At the foot of the hill mentioned above, a set of rectangular structures with a series of internal
divisions associated with a stepped design on a relatively at relief. The slope towards Cuzco
Creek has been protected with retaining walls.
Sector 3
It is the sector of greater hierarchy; it is a truncated Pyramid, achieved with three staggered levels;
it is approximately 100 meters long, 45 meters wide, and 6 meters high. The upper part is at and
is divided into three large rectangular rooms; the second and third rooms have smaller enclosures
in one of its corners and an oval-shaped mound inside these enclosures. There is a stairway in
the front of the pyramid that connects with an epimural path on the lower level. Towards the sides
of the pyramid, there are attached in the lower part, expansive rooms of rectangular plan erected
with quite wide walls (1.20 meters) which are of double facing and have been built with stones
of signicant size (80 x 90, 78 x 82). The front of the pyramid is located in front of the Quebrada
Cusco, while the Quebrada Guineal delimits the back and the right side.
Sector 4
On the slope located on the left bank of the Quebrada Guineal, there is a set of three architectural
structures with internal divisions dened by walls of different dimensions, which are separated from
each other by runoffs of 2 to 3 meters wide, which have been channeled. Associated Material and
Cultural Filiation: The surface cultural material has always been very scarce; however, during the
last visit, a forging made by a local some weeks ago in sector 4 allowed nding abundant ceramic
fragments in the corner of one of the enclosures, which corresponds to the Inca and paleteado
style, conrming our initial appraisals on the place (20).
Source: own elaboration.
The state of Conservation. During the last few years, there has been an increase in visits, especially from
high school students, which aects the conservation of the site because they spend one or more nights
there: they use the stones from the walls to build re pits and campsites, they walk on the top of the walls
causing them to come loose, and they leave non-degradable garbage such as bags, cans, and bottles.
The nearest town is located 2 hours away on foot (Capitán Hoyle, Ex Cazaderos), but they have always
felt great respect for the site, which explains why they have not depredated it; however, the progressive
increase of visitors to the site has also awakened their curiosity, especially the younger ones, being the
cause of the mentioned forging that allowed the identication of the ceramic material (Chacaltana et
al., 2017).
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Figure 8. The Guineal Archaeological Center.
Source: own elaboration.
On the other hand, a destructive agent in Guineal has always been natural: the growth of trunks and
roots of trees and bushes have managed to dislocate the masonry in varying degrees of intensity in the
four sectors. In sector 4, it is observed that the descent of mud and stones that clogged the natural drains
have aected the nearby architectural units, especially in the upper level.
Figure 9. Areas of the domain of the Guinean Center and the current.
Source: own elaboration.
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Figure 9 shows that the only district inuenced by the environment was the district of San Jacinto
(30.4%).
Figure 10. Cabeza de Vaca and Guineal Spatial Domain Center.
Source: own elaboration.
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The spatial domain of the Cabeza Vaca Center covers an area of 142,671.15 ha, while the Guinea
Center amounts to 17,836.73 ha; the sums of both areas represent 90.70 % of the current province of
the city of Tumbes.
The Centro de Cabeza de Vaca had a territorial extension of 100 ha; while Guineal was represented by
14 ha; the city of Cabeza de Vaca was 2.5 ha, while that of Guineal was 0.45 ha; with this information,
the constant was obtained.
I = f ( C ) = k * d X-Tent Model
I = Measure of the potential political inuence of the population center.
f(C) = Domain Center (size of the infrastructure)
k = Constant (proportional size of the comparison of the structures of the centers)
d = Radius distance
Considering the data of both centers, it was obtained that the constant was 1/5.55, which is applied
progressively on both centers until its cohesion; this cohesion spatially coincides with the archaeological
site called "Huasimo" according to the archaeological information this place had multipurpose
(surveillance center, warehouse, rest) considered at that time as a Tambo (Tambo).
3.4. THE ROAD NETWORK
According to the spatial information of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the
current road network in the province of Tumbes is represented by roads considering a classication into
national, provincial, and district; in addition to the carriage roads, there are 301,309.10 meters of roads
in the province.
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Figure 11. Current Road Network.
Source: own elaboration.
Figure 11 shows that national roads represent 33.97%, while local roads represent 27.33%, district roads
represent 24.62%, and dirt roads represent 13.88%. The most signicant number of roads is in the
district of San Jacinto with 31.64%, while the community of Pampas de Hospital represents 25.66%,
Tumbes with 15.71%, San Juan de la Virgen with 14.85%, Corrales with 6.56%, and La Cruz with
5.58% (Moralejo, 2012).
The detailed classication of the local road network is shown in Figure 11, while Figure 12 shows the
spatial distribution of the roads according to their classication.
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Figure 12. National Road Network and Inca Road Network in the Province of Tumbes.
Source: own elaboration.
The Inca road network enters the Tumbes Region in the southern area of the Cerros de Amotapepe
National Park following upstream along the Cuzco Creek near the hamlet called Captain Hoyle, which
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moves along the summits of the am tapes until reaching the Huasimo, an essential point because it is
considered the limit of the domain and watershed, the road continued to get another critical population
center called Rica Playa, from there the road moves parallel upstream left bank of the Tumbes River
passing through San Jacinto and Corrales, in the latter, is located the Monumental Archaeological Zone
Cabeza de Vaca, from there the road continued to reach near the Estero la Chepa, continuing to the
seashore.
Table 2. Comparison of the National Road Network and the Coastal Inca Trail (meters)
TYPE OF NETWORK San Jacinto (Stretch in mt) Corrales (Stretch in mt) Total (mt)
NATIONAL ROAD
NETWORK 95325.76 18557.88 113883.65
INCA TRAIL 79922.47 11837.83 91760.30
Source: own elaboration.
Table 1 shows data on the Inca road network in the San Jacinto district, which covers 83.84% of the
national road network, and in the Corrales district, which covers 63.79% of the national road network.
In general terms, the Inca road network covers 80.57% of the national road network (no dirt roads or
carriage roads were considered).
Figure 13 shows the coincidence of the limits of the domains of the two main archeological sites in
the province of Tumbes and the Inca road, which according to its longitudinal prole, this intersection
occurs at the highest altitude (787 m.a.s.l.), which is 29.7 km from the El Guineal Center (Chacaltana et
al., 2017).
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Figure 13. Prole of the Inca Trail and coincidence of Dominio de Cabeza de Vaca and El Guineal.
Source: own elaboration.
The maximum elevation of the Inca road prole is 787 meters above sea level. This coincides with the
domains of the centers, which have been estimated from a constant due to the size of the structure of
these archaeological sites.
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Figure 14. Current road network (right) and network in Inca times (left) in Cabeza de Vaca and El Guineal Center domains.
Source: own elaboration.
Figure 14 shows the road network of Tumbes and the Inca Trail and its connectivity with the population
centers in current times and in Inca times. For the national grid, 85 population centers have been
considered, and those near the road are 53. Table 2 shows the population centers located on the national
highway or very close to it, with 33 hamlets, 07 towns, 02 annexes, one city, and one village, and 09 have
no category.
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Of the villages, 33 are located on the national road, 02 in the district and one in the province, the towns
with the category in the city 06 are located on the national highway, and one in the community, the
villages with the type of annex are situated on the national road as well as the city and the town, of the
09 that do not have category four are located in the province, 03 in the national highway and 02 in the
district.
Table 4. Inca Settlement Centers (Archaeological Remains) located along the Inca Trail.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
SITE NAME DISTRICT TYPE OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
UTM-Z17 COORDINATES ALTITUDE
M.A.S.L.
EAST WEST
Miraores San Jacinto Settlement (wall bases) 561726 9597347 31
Higuerón San Jacinto Head of enclosure walls 559762 9584810 78
Mal Paso San Jacinto Rectangular structure 556293 9576845 157
Teniente Astete II San Jacinto Rectangular structure 558660 9553150 232
Guineal San Jacinto Complex settlement 551195 9543363 311
Huaca Cabeza de Vaca Corrales Complex settlement 556450 9601977 23
El Rodeo (Malval) Corrales Settlement (mound) 559011 9600072 200
Santa Rosa (Plateros) San Jacinto Structure s/f 561086 9595049 200
Vaquería San Jacinto Settlement 561189 9590335 200
Casa Blanqueada San Jacinto Enclosure 560693 9587196 200
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El Tablazo San Jacinto Semicircular structure 554944 9578925 200
Tierras Coloradas San Jacinto Rectangular Enclosure 556941 9573749 200
Pellejitos San Jacinto Rectangular structure 556637 9572893 123
Calabacitas I San Jacinto Rectangular structure 555968 9570044 200
Ucumares I San Jacinto Rectangular structure 555360 9569120 138
Teniente Astete I San Jacinto Rectangular enclosures 558695 9553240 233
Capitán Hoyle San Jacinto Rectangular structure 555142 9548120 261
Modroño San Jacinto Associated enclosures 549031 9539737 357
Source: own elaboration.
Eighteen archaeological remains show signs of population centers - Archaeological Inventory of the
Qhapaq Ñan Project, 2009.
Figure 14 shows the areas of inuence of the main Inca urban centers in the province of Tumbes,
determined by the Thiessen polygons; on this inuence, the current urban population centers are shown
as a result:
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Figure 15. Areas of Inuence (Thiessen polygons) of Inca Settlements and Urban Settlements (Current).
Source: own elaboration.
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The population center of Teniente Astete I is the largest in the province at 11.64%. It currently has
only one population center called El Zapayal, located in the Tumbes National Reserve. Huaca Cabeza
de Vaca is the second-largest population center, representing 11.08%. There are 19 urban population
centers (see Table 3-2), and the third-largest in Tierras Coloradas, which currently has no population
centers. This is because it is located in the Cerros de Amotape National Park.
4. DISCUSSION
The modeling methodology to determine the territorial domains of the Inca cities has not been expressed
in detail since it is a hypothesis that determines the domain area through the size of the site. The X-Tent
model shows the inuence of a site based on the distance without knowing for sure how to handle this
data.
In the investigation considering the information of the X-Tent model, it has been possible to develop the
domain of two important Inca cities, Cabeza de Vaca and El Guinea based on the size of the structure
that was the primary data for the calculation of the constant, applying distance according to this value
through buer the limits were determined, which coincide in an archaeological vestige called "Huasimo"
that appear in Inca times was a Tambo, a place of multiple uses. It has not been done anywhere in Peru
to apply this hypothesis that in the limits of domain of main Inca cities, there must be a place of vigil or
control of the parts of the Inca cities.
The study and analysis of roads should be carried out with the integration of multiple layers of
information that include the review of data from archaeology, history, toponymy, ethnography (oral
tradition), photographic and cartographic documentation, whether historical or recent, as well as other
sources related to these that allow us to recognize the characteristics of the object of study: in our case,
the Inca road network.
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According to the author gives a methodological denition of the analysis of roads through the use of
history and cartography, but does not present the location of nodes and networks as a practical case, in the
research a current analysis of the situation of the roads (grids) and their coincidence with the population
centers (nodes) is made, generating a comparison of the Inca cities and the Inca road network, including
the inuence of these through Thiessen's polygons, identifying the current population centers that are
located in these areas of inuence.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The X-Tent modeling gives us an approximation to the determination of the dominions of the Inca
cities, based on a constant and a distance that starts from the center of each city through a buer of
proportion.
It was determined that the proportion of the Cabeza de Vaca Center with the El Guineal Center is 7 to
8 times greater in their domains and that their limits have as a meeting an Inca place, which according
to current studies by archaeologists would be the Tambo called Huasimo.
The domain of Cabeza de Vaca covers an area of 142,671.15 hectares, while the El Guineal Center
covers an area of 17,836.73 hectares, the addition of both elds covers 90.70% of the current province
of Tumbes.
The Inca road network has an extension of 91,760.30 meters, which represents 80. 57% of the current
road network travels over 18 Inca population centers, generating the same number of areas of inuence
determined by Thiessen's polygons, where 85 current population centers have been identied. Cabeza
de Vaca has the most signicant number of current population centers. El Guineal is located in the
Cerros de Amotape National Park forests, a protected natural area with intangibility legislation, possibly
because this fact has not allowed human settlements.
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Between the domains of Cabeza de Vaca and El Guineal is the site of Huasimo, which according to its
longitudinal prole, is located at the highest point (787 m.a.s.l.) of the Inca Trail; this coincidence has
been determined according to X-Tent calculations and the analysis of the Google Earth program.
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